Introduction Zull (2002) states his main message is 'learning is change', change in the brain. Hence '...teaching must be the art of changing the brain'. (p. xiv) Zull acknowledges that we have moved beyond the absolute facts of "modern" science to a more relative post-modern view that depends more upon individual meaning and metaphor. Yet he still grounds his ideas in reliable scientific fact obtained from repeated experiments. He explains that in our everyday world a concrete reality still exists [see also independent reality; and critical realism]. In relating this view to learning he takes heart from people like Edelman (1992) and Lakoff (1999) who affirm that '...all the products of the mind come from the brain and its interactions with the body and the world.' Hence the skill Zull argues for is '...creating the conditions that lead to change in a learner's brain'. (p. 4) Brain structure and learning Zull begins briefly describing Kolb's (1984) theory of experiential learning, the "learning cycle". Deep, really comprehensive learning is said to come from a sequence of experience, reflection, abstraction, and active testing [ERAA; my anagram]. Zull made the connection between this learning cycle and what he knew about the structure of the brain, concluding that, 'Ultimately, the structure of the brain should explain learning. Its only natural.' (p. 14) Describing functions of the cerebral cortex, sensing, integrating and motor [SIM; my anagram], Zull explains that these do the key things that are essential for all nervous systems; sense the environment; integrate that information; initiate appropriate action. Turning to Kolb's model again the cycle is based upon the proposal that learning originates in concrete experience (experiential learning). However, reflection upon this experience is essential (in the first integrative part of the cortex) to develop abstractions (ideas originating in the second integrative part) that can be actively tested (initiated in the motor part). 'Balancing' the brain Zull argues that the more we realize about how the brain divides its work and how parts are connected to each other, the more we will appreciate that balanced use of all parts is essential. The example of students memorizing information but failing to produce useful knowledge is given. Hence he goes on to describe changing data into knowing, what Kolb calls "transformation of experience." Transforming Zull describes three parts: Transformation from past to future; the past informs plans for the future. Integrating external knowledge; transforming outside experience into knowledge and understanding. Transformation of power; as our own brain starts to give the orders, taking personal control of gaining knowledge to a position of strength and independence. But he explains, experience and information are only half the story. One part of the brain receives, remembers, and integrates information from outside, the other acts, modifies, creates and controls. For transformational learning both parts must be used. Using other parts Zull next explores the possibility of other students who might underuse their sensory and reflective cortex but overuse their idea and acting cortex. It's all generation of ideas and actions but not enough experiential data to work with and no time spent on reflection. Zull questions whether it is difficult to keep a balance between front and back parts of the brain, perhaps the front and the back parts of the brain don't talk to each other much. However, he explains that the most obvious wiring in the brain is designed exactly for this front/back connection. There should be balance between receiving knowledge and using knowledge. But what holds it all together? Zull argues emotion. Discussing evolution of the brain and motivation Zull explains that the learning cycle is about life itself. He suggests we find out what we care about. Our fears and hopes are the source of our emotions. Thus the best chance to help another person is to find out what they want, what they care about. Paramount is survival and wanting survival means wanting control. Subconscious role of emotion Discussing survival tools Zull argues that there are two fundamental things that our brains want; to be safe and happy. Two parts of our survival machine help us to achieve these goals: our fear system that may make us run, hide or play dead, and our pleasure system. He describes these as "I want this" and "I don't want that" systems. Back to Top Newer tools for survival We survive by thinking, planning and deciding. The cognitive brain is a powerful tool for survival and is to be found in the neocortex (new cortex). This most recent part of the brain developed around the inner ring known as the limbic cortex, a much older part of the brain. [see MacLean (1990); Tri-une Brain Chpt. 2] Learning what we should fear and what we should love is essential for survival. Zull explains that our cognitive brain learns what gets results. Success in thought generates understanding that aids survival. Zull continues, cognition, control, fear and pleasure are four things brains use to survive. These four "wants" are not independent of each other. One may block another, or we may forego one to satisfy another. Ultimately it's all about control. Thus we will decide, whether right or wrong. Zull explains this is why talk of brain structures and emotions is important. A person's emotions cannot be controlled by another but it is possible to nudge a person in a certain direction. Back to Top Brain and emotion Recent research continues to point to a strong connection between the limbic cortex and emotion. Zull argues emotion may be more fundamental than cognition, even in humans. He identifies clusters of cells buried deep inside the lobes of each hemisphere. The amygdala is involved in identifying things that are "bad for me." It is located in the back cortex that is mainly for analyzing our experience and making meaning of it. Thus the amygdala is described by Zull as helping to decide meaning; it does not solve problems, create new ideas, or plan new actions. Citing LeDoux, sensory signals are said to go directly to the amygdala, bypassing the sensory cortex, before we are even aware of them. This so-called "lower" route begins to make meaning of our experience before any cognitive understanding or conscious awareness. Our amygdala is constantly monitoring our experience to see how things are. [see Dreyfus on Heidegger's Existential view on role of emotions: Affectedness; Moods] Thus the learner may be wary of someone who appears to want to take control. On the other hand, in some situations the amygdala becomes less active than normal, and negative emotions seem to diminish. This may occur when the cortical brain becomes involved in cognitive tasks for example. Thus getting people more involved in their work will make them feel less nervous and afraid and the intrinsic reward systems can begin to engage. Recalling that the front cortex is about action Zull argues that movement and pleasure are connected. It is how we make discoveries, how we encounter the world, and how we learn. He suggests the anterior cingculate could be the most interesting part of the brain. Citing Damasio again, this area is key for social reasoning, especially judging the outcome of behaviours. It is also reported that people make intelligent, and often useful, intuitive decisions that depend on their emotions and occur without conscious thought. Zull sums up thus, we will always be motivated to learn things that fit into what we want and to resist those that don't, especially things that look like potential threats to our happiness or if they seem that they might take control of our lives. But Zull stresses that emotion is not just driven by certain parts of the brain. It could be that the entire brain is an organ of emotion, and that emotion, reason and memory are all linked together. Back to Top Role of Feelings in Memory and Reason Understanding the brain can help us work with feelings in learning. Zull explains that the brain is a part of the body. Thus learning engages the brain and other parts of the body as well. The brain interacts with the body and vice versa as neurons carry signals back and forth. The hypothalamus, located underneath the basal structures, receives input from them and the amygdala. This allows the hypothalamus to send messages about the emotional state of the brain out into the body. In turn this can trigger the release of a chemical signal (for example danger) into the blood stream initiating release of adrenaline, prompting "fight or flight". Zull continues, arguing that there is no such thing as cold reason. Reason he states is always driven by emotion and need, suggesting even that reason could probably not occur at all without emotion. [see theories of emotion.] Citing Damasio again, our body is said to develop certain feelings associated with specific cognitive tasks. Such feelings are part of cognition. Back to Top Wiring Emotion to Thinking Zull argues that there must be connections between the reasoning centres and the emotion centres in the brain. [Comment: This raises questions about the role of consciousness and the possibility of a "virtual connection".] Citing LeDoux, it is argued that emotions influence out thinking more than thinking influences our emotion. Battle for attention Zull then asks, if feelings are essential for rationality, why can feelings interfere with reason, even destroy it? He suggests that as we are capable of having many feelings at once the role of attention is central. Different sensory signals physically compete for attention in the brain, the strongest winning out. Thus he argues that if reason is to win out it must produce the strongest feelings. Reflecting upon a 'specific competition' Zull then explains that the feelings of wanting a particular result can win out in its competition with rationality. Asking if discipline can allow our brains to ignore distraction he suggests that we must care more about discipline than other things that vie for attention. Thus learners must be encouraged to want to use reason. Back to Top Approaches to Memory Distinguishing the difference between semantic and episodic memory Zull explains that semantic memories are facts, labels and names of things. Episodic memories are stories and these can in part be wrong because it is the nature of the episode rather than the detail that is remembered. Zull notes the distinction between the process of recall and the formation of memories, these are associated with different areas of the brain. Formation of explicit memories involves the hippocampus, but formation of implicit memories may not. Thus he argues that there is a biological basis for separation of the different kinds of memory in addition to a psychological one. Making memories Zull explains that long-term explicit memories are formed in the hippocampus. Like the amygdala, it is buried beneath the integrative cortex of the temporal lobe. As well as involvement in remembering location or place it is now thought to be on the route taken by all the information in the surrounding intergrative cortex at the back of the brain. When information associated with a particular event or "episode" arrives at the hippocampus it becomes assembled into an even bigger picture of the episode itself. All the parts of the memory are associated with each other, and it becomes "a memory". Thus the hippocampus is described as the master integrator. However, it doesn't store the memories itself. The integrated information finds its way back to various parts of the cortex in a form of susceptible recall or reassembly at any time. Zull then speculates that there may be a connection between feelings and the formation of explicit memories. The fornix (tail of the hippocampus) sends its fibres forward toward the basal structures identified earlier as potential pleasure centres (i. e. septum; nucleus accumbens). Pulling things together Zull explains that although in science we tend to study things in isolation the parts we study are actually connected to other parts. Thus we must look for the more unified field. Hence, in summary, although separating feelings that help us reason from those that damage reason they are not really separate. Thus he argues teachers should discern which feelings are helpful and which are damaging with a view to turning the damaging ones into helpful ones. It is also suggested that explicit memory and implicit memory may also require each other. Similarly, semantic memory may depend on episodic memory, the feelings and stories of our memorizing experiences. Explicit memories may also give content to episodic memories. Zull's main point is that feelings always affect reasoning and memory. They can help us remember and forget, to recall important events that did happen, but they can also trigger false memories. They are essential for reasoning, yet can hinder it. Much depends on the feelings of the learners. Back to Top Neuronal Networks In Part II Zull turns to specific ideas about helping people to learn. He refers first to his assertion that "neuronal networks are knowledge." Citing Ausubel he explains, 'the single most important factor in learning is the existing network of neurons in the learner's brain. Ascertain what they are and teach accordingly.' Zull proceeds to outline three important ideas about prior knowledge: All learners have some prior knowledge. Prior knowledge is persistent because physical networks of neurons are strong. Prior knowledge is the beginning of new knowledge. Zull argues that you must find some common prior knowledge to start. Neurons Zull asserts that prior knowledge is a thing. To help the reader understand this point he suggests the story behind this assertion needs to be told—and so he begins with neurons and neural networks. Zull explains that there is a neuronal network in our brain for everything we know. Complex ideas or experiences consist of extensive networks. When teaching, the teacher needs to match the material being taught with the students neural networks. Recalling that knowledge is a physical 'thing' the teacher needs to change a physical set of connections in the learner's brain. The question is what changes and how? This begs a further question, are there neural networks common to all learners? Zull suggests that we find out what students believe and use it as a tool for teaching. 'Existing neuronal networks open the door to effective teaching.' The one thing we do know is that the existing neuronal networks are related to the learners' own life experience. Thus the abstract and the theoretical have less meaning if no neuronal networks are associated with the concrete experience of the learner. So medical students need to start with patients, maths students with purchases in a store, and so on. The teacher should start with where the student is. Zull suggests all abstract concepts are embedded in concrete experience. Speed and acceleration is associated with driving a car. He continues, explaining that neuronal networks are a tangle. Our inclination is to straighten them out, which we can't do. The student needs to use the neuronal networks they have, to start from there.One way to start is to ask learners in a group to explain their previous experience and ideas about the subject matter. This could be presented written down or in a drawing, then exchanged, with each explaining what they think the other is trying to say. This stimulates dialogue. Zull acknowledges that existing neuronal networks are persistent and powerful. But he stresses, that learners do improve and grow in their knowledge. If prior knowledge turns out to be useless they stop using it and learn new ideas. How this happens is explained next. Back to Top Changing neuronal networks Zull acknowledges that differences in genes can produce differences in the brain. But this is not to say the wiring of the bain is programmed. It is more the case that our genes give us the tools for flexibility in synapses, and the basic patterns of synapses, so that a brain can work. Reflecting upon common behaviour the suggestion is that people all share certain genes that make us behave as humans and prefer the things humans prefer [evolutionary psychology]. Acknowledging complexity Zull suggests that the tremendous differences in species can be understood in terms of the same conceptual framework. This combination of diversity and unity is also true of the brain. We can be swamped and confused in the detail. But recognizing the unifying idea will help considerably, especially as the things that produce change are the same for all synapses. These are: How much they are used. How important the signals are. Zull first addresses use. Synapses can be described as 'strong' if they fire many rapid bursts when triggered, or 'weak' if firing only a few times. Learning is possible because a weak synapse can become strong and vice versa. He further explains that change depends both on genes and sensory experience. Change due to the latter is described as plasticity. Experience changes the wiring in our brains because it changes the activity in our neurons. The more active the more synapses they can make. Hence, to begin, he advocates building upon the neurological gifts we already have. Back to Top Developing Our Gifts Zull argues that there is no simpler way to learn than to practice things we already know. He argues that for the teacher, the best opportunity to change a brain is to refine and exaggerate the valuable connections already there. Recognize the existing neuronal networks in a learner and invent ways for her or him to use them. The learner will do the rest. The teacher's part is to find ways to combine the established networks, or parts of them, with new networks—to build new concepts using a mix of the old and new.The teacher must look out for the factually, or conceptually, wrong knowledge that exists in all brains. But rather than pointing out what is wrong an "errorless learning" approach is advocated. Zull suggests that it may be better to ignore an error rather than to correct it. Instead of trying to remove wrong ideas it is perhaps better to build upon them. Given that a "wrong" connection comes from experience in a fundamental way it cannot be "wrong". The technique Zull suggests to start with is, "That's right but there is more!" The aim is to find the connection that relates the "wrong" network to the "right" one. However, Zull adds a note of caution with regard to developing new neural networks. The "old" remain in tact and can be readily reactivated. This can be an advantage or a disadvantage. Presenting "old" challenges, that may lead to the rediscovery of "old" solutions, should be avoided. Neuronal networks, metaphors and analogies With reference to Lakoff and Johnson (1999) Zull proposes a neuronal model to represent their idea that abstract ideas and thoughts arise from the physical experiences of our bodies. Nothing is really abstract, ideas are based upon the concrete actions of our bodies. Zull concludes the chapter stressing that the power of the metaphor comes from the physical relationship of the neuronal networks from which it is constructed. They give meaning. Thus getting learners to develop their own metaphors is crucial. Physical analogies should also be encouraged. Back to Top Using more of the Cerebral Cortex Returning to his theme about the brain's natural cycle of learning Zull next explores how working with this cycle can facilitate teaching. He focuses on different parts of the cerebral cortex in turn, beginning with the back cortex. He stresses that he is talking about regions of the cortex that are the first to receive input from one of the senses. The 'sensory brain' is spread throughout the cortex. In recording experience the sensory brain gathers the raw materials for reflection, abstraction, and action. Zull reviews his earlier explanations regarding the back brain. He then talks about the part that proceeds to integration and meaning. Focussing on vision he explains that different neurons in the visual brain see different parts of things. Information for each bit, such as lines, edges, orientation, colour, form, is sent at the 'same time' in parallel. In detecting differences the fine detail is significant. Zull argues these facts are encouraging for teachers. Paying attention to the fine detail, the important little things, is essential. The detail can mean everything or it can mean nothing. The difference between the expert or novice is in knowing what detail is important and what isn't. Zull also stresses seeing things as the student sees them, that is, as sensory input. Seeing detail requires attention. This is best achieved by shifting focus from one area to another repeatedly. Zull gives examples of how this 'shifting' is replicated in the brain. The visual world is literally and physically mapped in our brains. He extends this to suggest that there are actual images stored in the brain. They are easy to remember because they contain conceptual relationships. [see Dennett; There are no 'pictures in the head'] Zull suggests the best images come from experience itself. Their richness influences the emotional brain. He states that we are more likely to trust sensory input from the experience itself because it has a calming effect on our amygdala, hence clearer thinking. Thus Zull advocates the use of images in teaching. Teaching as "showing" is also important. He explains that: Careful thought must be given as to what is shown. Stay as close to the raw image of concrete experience as possible. Point out the important parts of an image. Whatever, the images, sounds and feelings should connect with what the students already know. Back to Top Comprehending Experience Previously Zull explored how the back cortex gets information in small bits and then reassembles it, mainly in the integrative back cortex. He associates this process with "reflective observation" in the learning cycle. It takes times to see the whole unified picture. Focussing on "What and Where" Zull explains that visual information travels via two different routes, lower and higher, to the integrative parts. The upper route tells us where things are, analyzing the spatial relationships of things. It is also part of the "attention network." The lower integrative area is concerned with "what" the brain is seeing and categorizes it; person, object, alive, inert? Further, as well as "what" this area tells us "who." the brain 'knows' things belong in the same category. But this is not the same as naming it. More important is knowing "where" as this involves relationships. We only know where things are, or where parts of things in reference to something else. the example of a chimney on a roof, or a roof under the chimney, is given. Spatial relationships tell us the detailed structure of the material world, this leads to function, central to our understanding of the world around us. Zull next explains that "where" can mean more than the physical location of objects. It can mean where in time, that is "when.". It can also mean where someone fits into your life, where characters fit into a story and so on. There are also degrees of where, close to a friend or closer to our child. Where can also help us understand ourselves. Turning to attention Zull notes that there is general attention (right side of integrative back brain) and specific attention (left side). Both tell us where, and we use both when we pay attention to things. He suggests students should be given assignments that require them to use these different parts of the brain. With regard to mathematics Zull explains that the calculation of exact answers activates areas in the front brain more than any region in the back brain (same for language). However, estimating answers, the where pathway in the upper back brain is used. Estimating is about where something will come. Zull then explains that being fast doesn't mean necessarily being the best learner. The deeper thinker is the best. Although the brain may be fast delivering information to the cortex, the integration of information takes time. Reflection is searching for the connections that we need to develop complexity. Directing and supporting reflection is part of the art of changing a brain toward comprehension. Zull states that reflection involves images and language. The images are internal and they come from the brain. Back to Top The Past and the Emotions Even if we experience something that has happened to us before it is hard to make meaning of it unless it engages our emotions. Zull also stresses that comprehension often requires us to make images out of language. This ability is described as the ultimate in integration by the human brain. Another side of language is prosody, emphasis on particular syllables—the rhythm, the pitch, the tone and inflection. Zull suggests a great deal of the art of changing the brain has to do with the efective use of prosody. He next discusses an over-reliance on language. If we do not attend to the image that the language is meant to create then students may know the words but not understand the thing itself. Thus building upon prior knowledge may fail. Zull explains his primary goals have been to show how the functions of the back brain all work together to produce comprehension. The integration of what with where, emotion with fact, big picture with precise detail, symbolic language with prosodic language, and language with image, all play their part in the development of deep understanding by a learner. Back to Top Creating knowledge Zull stresses that if we are to learn and grow, at some point, we must change from receivers of knowledge to creators of knowledge. Creating takes place in the front cortex, the main function of which is described as working memory. Short-term memory remembers a few things for a while as we seek to develop an idea, plan or solve a problem. Because these are just ideas they are described as abstractions. Zull then distinguishes between working memory and long-term memory. These involve separate pathways in the brain. However, working memory and long-term memory are not unrelated. A piece of information held in working memory (a name for instance) can be passed to long-term memory by associating it with some other piece of related information by way of a little story with cues. Turning to the distribution of work in the front cortex different parts are said to do different things. In general, Zull explains that spatial working memory more frequently engages the upper part of the front cortex and object working memory the middle and lower parts. Thus working with both spatial and object formation is important when teaching. So beyond recognition and analysis of 'what' and 'where' we should ask students to invent their own ideas, their hypotheses, about spatial relationships (how things might be rearranged) and object features that define categories (new structure). Although working memory is limited and transient these features are vital for creativity. If working memory could hold more information, or hold it longer, we might not be able to reason as well as we do. Thus when teaching: Do not overload working memory. Break things up. Back to Top Creating new ideas Zull explains that creating new ideas has two parts. Short-term storage of information. Manipulation or rearranging of that information to form new relationships. Conscious rearranging and manipulation of items in working memory comes closest to what we call thinking. This process, carried out by the brain's executive', engages more of the front cortex than working memory does. Research suggests that it probably takes more of the brain to think than just to remember. Executive work can be broken down into two parts: Attending to relevant information. Task Management; mentally manipulating the relevant facts in order to achieve a goal. To help students Zull suggests it is better to focus on each part separately. Although they can decide what is relevant we can tell, and show them, what our choices would be. We can ask them to list the important facts or steps to solve a problem or generate an idea. Zull states that some believe reasoning can be taught. People just need to learn whatever it is we do. But he argues this is a false belief. It is not the way the brain works. Neuronal networks grow by building on existing networks. Thus reasoning in a subject comes through the neuronal networks for information in that subject. Thus subjects can remain independent with a lack of transfer in reasoning skills. Citing Nisbett et al it seems it is hard to teach reasoning by learning rules, such as the rules of logic. However, statistical reasoning can be taught. People already posses the neuronal networks for the laws of probability if something has happened a large number of times it is likely to happen again (and the converse). Back to Top Learning by Copying Humans and other animals mimic what they experience. Zull describes "mirror neurons" that reflect an observation by reproducing it as an action. [see also Rudd; Culture, genetic disposition; mirror neurons] The brain is wired to copy what we observe. Thus Zull questions whether we can own something that we have copied? He suggests that: We copy basic ideas but manipulate this information making it our own. Choosing to copy is taking ownership. Copying still requires the construction of a personal abstract idea, we imagine how it will be. This image we own. Mirror neurons raise issues with regard to plagiarism. Zull stresses caution, given that copying is natural. Clear guidelines are required. Back to Top Planning for action Constructing language is making a plan for action. Zull describes this process as major part of what the front brain evolved to do. Thus in learning students should be encouraged to explain things clearly in their own words. That is to describe their plan of action. Thus rather than asking " questions?" we should ask learners to describe uncertainties. Finally Zull makes two points. Developing a plan takes time. Thus good questions take time, and so do good answers. Secondly, learners may need guidance in developing their ideas; they should lead toward developing testable ideas. Closing the Loop of Learning Zull first stresses that there is a great difference between imagining that we have done a problem than actually doing it. Ideas need to be tested in a concrete and active way. Experience, reflection, developing new ideas is not enough. Action (active testing of ideas) must follow. This can be via language, discussing our ideas for example, or physically. Physical testing is the final arbiter of truth. Inside and Outside Worlds Zull argues that we need to bring the terms inside world and outside world together. This is apparent in the learning cycle he suggests. Experience of the concrete world gives connections and ideas inside our brain, and these internal ideas and connections allow us to understand and manipulate the outside world. Thus we survive and learn. Without active testing we cannot say our ideas are right or wrong. We cannot say that we have learned. Zull then explains that the brain knows that the body is doing. Movements are sensed. Action produces sensation. Active Testing while Listening When taking notes in class it helps to translate what the teacher says into our own words. We can then check these against a book for example. this practice uses the four major parts of the cortex discussed. Starting with Action Zull prefers the act>sense>integrate model. When a baby interacts with the world he or she discovers that specific motions can produce specific results. Certain movements produce the same result—a pattern. Others produce no pattern. Thus the learning cycle begins. Thus action by the learner can initiate learning. Zull suggests that sometimes the search for ideas may be most important. Biology and the Search for Ideas Citing Cotterill, the idea of a "back to front" theory of consciousness with the first and most fundamental part of consciousness being what the organism does, not what it senses. As with learning, action produces sensation. Cognition and Action introducing another area of the brain, the cerebellum, Zull explains that it is important for coordinating, controlling, and remembering complicated actions. In research it was discovered that the right cerebellum was strongly activated during some cognitive process. Possibly because the thought was about action. Recently the cerebellum has also been implicated in attention and memory retrieval. This action-centred part of the brain is important in a range of cognitive functions. Thus asking the learner to describe things in terms of their actions and their anticipated actions adds more brain power. He concludes it is the learner who must engage the learning. this is fundamentally a question of emotion. So he then asks the question "What makes the learner want to test his ideas?" Back to Top Effective use of Emotion Zull next explores the extensive connections between the emotion centres (amygdala and basal structures) and the neocortex. These connections imply that all the parts of the learning cycle are influenced by emotion. One of the basal structures is called the nucleus basali, active when survival needs are met, i.e. when eating. Axons in the nucleus basalis that extend out to the auditory cortex release a chemical called aceytlcholine on the neurons in this sensory part of the brain. This triggers chemical changes that increase the responsiveness of existing synapses, producing stronger, more numerous synapses. Thus we learn things that are important to us. Zull suggests that plasticity in the brain probably depends more on signals from the emotional centres than it does on new sensory input. Noting that some neurotransmitters, like aceytlcholine, dopamine, serotonin, and a form of adrenaline. Recognizing Importance Zull stresses that although the learner must "buy in" to importance, this will take time; hence the value of reflection. He explains this is related to the fact that neurotransmitters initiate a complex path of chemical reactions within the neurons. Chemical cascades end up affecting the nature and number of synapses. The other thing they have in common is their connection with emotion, for instance serotonin with peace and tranquillity; dopamine, pleasure and action; adrenaline with tension, excitement and energy. Thus the impact of emotion upon learning is significant and teachers should find methods that make emotion part of the meaning. Following an unsuccessful teaching exercise Zull appreciated that it failed because: It did not build on prior knowledge; The learning didn't really matter in the lives of the learners. Addressing a barrier to extrinsic motivation in learning, the nature of intrinsic learning is first considered. It is reflected in recollections of life experience, our personal life story. Recalling and creating stories are part of learning. Stories allow us to package events and knowledge in complex neuronal nets, any part of which can trigger all the others. Stories are about action, good and bad. Thus they generate fear and pleasure and all the other derivative emotions. Thus stories are of benefit in teaching, and students should be encouraged to develop their own stories. Zull, referring to cognitive science, explains that teachers should get their students to "process" things, using knowledge to achieve some goal. How the brain remembers stories Recall of stories involves episodic memory using the right hemisphere. Encoding the stories and recalling the facts involves the left-brain. That's detail and structure using the left-brain, and the "big picture" using the right brain. It is also noted that the left-brain is more creative, even making things up. The right brain is described as more faithful and realistic. In order to be effective there must be a moral or point to a story. Thus teachers are advised to focus on the lynchpin of stories. Being Real Beyond engaging students emotionally Zull stresses that the way teachers present themselves is important. It is the learner who should be at the centre of things, with the teacher leading when appropriate. But whether leading or guiding, the important thing is to be authentic. To begin, teachers should prepare for their students. Think what they are like, question why they are in your class and think about what might worry them. From here it is possible that what you want them to learn will become part of their lives. Asking first how students learn and what works for them will reveal differences. The learning cycle is based upon two polarities; concrete-abstract and reflective active. Zull suggests that people will lean toward one side or the other of these polarities. Put another way, in brain terms, some people prefer using their sensory brain, some prefer using their integrative "back brain," some prefer using their "integrative front brain," and others their motor brain. Different parts of the cycle seem more comfortable to different people. These preferences come from feelings. Zull suggests that by finding out how each student will start his or her learning (by identifying preferences) class exercises of assignments can be devised to engage emotional structures from the start. Students should then be led away from their comfortable style and encouraged to stretch themselves using [different] parts of the brain. Intelligences and styles Zull suggests that by asking question such as "How do you learn?" subjects such as learning styles and multiple intelligences are raised. These should be treated as natural abilities that can be put to good use. Zull then maps these abilities in the brain cycle of learning thus suggesting specific ideas for teaching different types of learners. The example is given of a visual learner being asked to examine the spatial relationships in images experienced [using different parts of the learning cycle]. Next, encourage him or her to organize those relationships into logical patterns, and then to create his or her own visualizations of the patterns created. This approach it is claimed should engage the emotional brain. Back to Top Intelligences, Learning Styles and Emotion If different learners enjoy using different parts of their brain Zull then asks what produces this enjoyment. His hypothesis is that '...to the brain, movement is more than physical movement of parts of the body; it is also mental movement, or progress' (p. 234). Zull reminds us that the brain's ability to imagine actions is orchestrated by the executive centres in the front brain. Imagined actions give us pleasure, as reading a story can. Thus, he argues, the brain enjoys a story because it goes somewhere. The corollary of this for learning is that pleasure comes when we use parts of the brain that have the wiring for our strongest abilities. Learning is Dynamic Citing Fischer's concept of "webs" of understanding, the learner is progressing along an increasingly complex web of connections that depends on his individual experience. totally biological argues Zull. Another concept of Fischer's relates to the dynamic nature of learning. Rather than linear it is by way of stops, starts, reverses and breakthroughs. Thus we can have success or be blocked at any part of the cycle. Success increases positive emotions, failure allows negative emotions to get the upper hand. The sum of all these fits and starts over time determines learning. Thus Zull suggests the teacher can take the lead when progress seems stalled. As progress begins the teacher can step back allowing the learner to face the challenges. Challenge and support is optimal for the learner. The teacher's first task is to get some emotional movement by defining a goal for the student. It must get the student's interest and appear realistic. It must represent a reasonable challenge that will raise interest but not frustrate. Of course the student's amygdala may be wary of exploring new territory and so fell anxious or uncertain. To help the student move into more positive emotional territory examples can be shown, suggestions made and existing knowledge highlighted. This will establish the "scaffolding" upon new knowledge can be hung. Zull explains that the support must allow the student to have some success, to sense movement. As emotions turn more positive hope will be raised, interest increased and confidence gained. Then control can be handed back over so that the learner takes ownership, allowing him or her to create new ideas, and to test those ideas. When testing indicates something is wrong, and frustration sets in, and interest is lost, then the teacher can step back in. Zull argues that learning itself is motivating, therefore the student must experience some success, and sense progress. However, Zull acknowledges this is difficult to achieve. As indicated, his ideas about the learning cycle are a guide, but he also stresses the value of peer support. Through interaction, not only will the student get new cognitive ideas, he or she will gain confidence and recognize progress already made. At this point the teacher should step back to allow the learner to use the front brain and develop his or her own ideas and test them. The student may ask for feedback but it is up to them. If learning stalls, then the teacher can step in with a new challenge; one that recognizes the hang-up and reorganizes the challenge into different peices that the student can address. Back to Top Self Evaluation Next Zull addresses performance evaluation by visiting the part of the brain that watches over itself. Citing McDonald's Stroop Test, (conducted concurrently with PET scans of the brain), speaking the words engaged the anterior cingulate region of the limbic cortex which is implicated in emotional decision-making. But Zull suggests this is more specific than general emotion. The emotions are said to play a major role in whether we take ownership. Once evaluated, we may accept performance, or may reject it. Thus Zull examined his own teaching. How was he using the anterior cingulate in his teaching? Where did self-evaluation fit in? Realizing that a set assignment was all about him and his ideas he tried to think of ways that the students could reclaim their work. He then thought to get the students to evaluate themselves. He noticed a freedom and assertiveness in these critiques. One student's critique was insightful, decisive, accurate, and engaged. Every aspect of it said "This is mine!" Thus the cycle of creating, evaluating, re-creating and reevaluating was formed. In this way the student's emotional connections are with their own ideas and their own judgement's. when teacher makes suggestions the students only know they have lost control. Thus in assessment and evaluation the teacher may be forced to be an evaluator and give grades. But when it comes to learning, self-evaluation is more useful. Evaluation can support learning only when the student suggests it. Zull concludes by stressing learning is what the brain does. The main task for the teacher is to help learners find connections with their life, their emotions, or their understandings. Then they will learn; then their brains will change. When the learner is in control he or she will learn. Back to Top